The Framing Effect: How Perception Shapes Decision-Making

We’ve all heard someone say the glass is “half full" or “half empty.” The same amount of water is in both glasses but your reaction may be different depending on how it’s described. Or how about cold cuts are “90% fat-free” versus “10% fat.” The amount of beef is the same but you may feel differently because of how the product is described. That is the psychology of framing in a nutshell.

Framing is when the same information is presented, or “framed,” in different ways, which often evokes very different emotions even though the information is saying the same thing. But the person only sees one formulation of the information, so to them, that’s all there is. Therefore, people can have different impressions of the same facts.

Framing As a Cognitive Bias

Framing is a cognitive bias, or error in thinking. According to Dr. Regina Lazarovich, PhD, clinical psychologist and founder of Compass CBT, “People make most choices... by identifying options as good or bad and then ranking them. This process of editing and evaluating choices means that our perception is biased by the way information is presented. Presenting the same information positively…or negatively…can influence people's perceptions of those facts and their choices.”

Understanding framing is valuable because it allows us to understand how our choices might be manipulated by the way information is presented, not just the information itself, says Dr. Dillon Harper, PhD and psychologist. “This awareness can make us more thoughtful and less likely to fall for tricks that might lead us to make decisions that aren't really in our best interest.”

In the following article, we’ll dive into the theoretical background of framing psychology, look at types of framing and examples of framing in real life, and explore the factors that influence the framing effect and the strategies to mitigate the influence of framing.

Background of Framing in Psychology

Daniel Kahneman and Amos Tversky first proposed framing as part of Prospect Theory in 1979. Prospect Theory, explains GinaMarie Guarino, Licensed Mental Health Counselor at PsychPoint, “suggests that people make decisions based on the level of risk versus potential gain.”

The most important concepts from Kahneman and Tversky’s research, says Lazarovich, are:

• Relative evaluation: Choices are seen as either positive or negative deviations from a supposedly neutral reference point.
• Qualitative value function: People tend to reason intuitively rather than logically.
• Loss aversion: Losses are more significant than gains.
• Asymmetric risk-taking: People will leave losses to chance but will embrace guaranteed wins.
  

In 1998, Levin, Schneider, and Gaeth distinguished between three types of framing effects:

• Risky choice framing: One’s risk attitude will be changed when choices are framed either negatively or positively.
• Attribute framing: One’s evaluations of objects or people will be changed depending on whether their key attributes are described in a positive or negative light.
• Goal framing: Differences in messages stress the positive consequences of performing an act as opposed to the negative consequences of not performing it.
  

The concepts and theories listed above explain the various ways that people’s decision-making becomes vulnerable to framing. As Harper states, “Framing shapes the way we see the world by highlighting certain aspects of information while downplaying others. This can nudge us toward specific decisions without us even realizing it. For example, choosing between two products might come down to which one’s benefits are framed in a way that appeals more to our desires, fears, or values.”

This taps into our natural tendency to welcome gains and avoid losses, overriding more logical thinking and leading people to make decisions based on how something feels rather than how it really is. Take the above example of 90% fat-free cold cuts versus 10% fat cold cuts. Your choice might not be logical but instead driven by your emotional reaction to the advertiser’s choice of words.

Types of Framing in Psychology

Positive framing and its effects on decision-making

Positive framing highlights the benefits of a given scenario. It encourages us to focus on the optimistic and makes us willing to take action, according to Harper. “For example,” he says, “saying a vaccine is 95% effective makes people more likely to want it.”

Negative framing and its effects on decision-making

Negative framing, on the other hand, highlights what could go wrong and what may be lost if a person does not take the desired action. This kind of framing makes people fear the consequences of what will happen if they don’t make the desired decision and can make people more risk-averse, says Harper. “For instance,” he explains, "if a message says, 'If you don’t wear sunscreen, you’re likely to get skin cancer,' it might scare people into taking preventive action.”

Comparative framing and its effects on decision-making

Comparative framing, says Guarino, “creates a biased comparison of objective information.” This kind of framing can influence our choices by comparing facts in a way that makes the preferred perspective more desirable than the alternative.

For example, Guarino says, advertising a racehorse as being able to run twice as fast as its competitors creates a biased frame that some people are likely to buy into even if the statement is impossible.

Examples of Framing in Everyday Life

The examples of framing in real life are numerous but are often hidden. Guarino cites different versions of the same story between different news stations. Suppose both conservative news channels, like Fox News, and more liberal news channels, like MSNBC, are working on a story about, how on side of Congress killed a bill before it could pass. In that case, how the story is portrayed—and who is vilified or championed—may depend on which network you're watching.

Similarly, to make tax cuts seem more appealing, says Harper, politicians frame tax cuts as “a return of your hard-earned money” instead of “a reduction in government revenue.”

These instances illustrate how people in politics, news, health, advertising, and more use framing to affect how people make decisions. Framing can impact public perception and shape behavior. For example, “advertisers might frame a product as 'new and improved' to attract buyers, even if the changes are minor,” Harper explains. “Politicians use framing to sway voters by presenting policies in ways that resonate with their audience’s values, like framing a tax plan as 'fair and equitable' or 'a job killer,' depending on the desired response.”

The ethical implications of framing depend on whether it’s used to inform or manipulate. When it’s used to inform, “it can be beneficial,” says Harper. “[But] when it’s used to mislead, it raises ethical concerns about the fairness and transparency of the information presented.” Guarino concurs, concluding, “when objective information is manipulated to seem more appealing, even if it is masking undesirable risks or presenting information in a way that is misleading to consumers,” ethical considerations come into play, such as with manipulative advertising or biased news reporting.

As a consumer of information, it's important to think at all times about what a messenger may be trying to say to you, especially if they are pitching something for you to buy, or a side to choose.

Factors Influencing the Framing Effect

There are several factors that influence framing, according to Guarino, Lazarovich, and Harper. They include:

• Education level: Those with more education are likely to be more skeptical of framing.
• Knowledge about the presented information: Those with more knowledge about a given subject are less likely to accept an argument at face value.
• Cultural background: Those from different cultures have different tolerances for framing.
• Personal experiences: Those with personal experience in a given scenario are more likely to scrutinize a framed message.
• Risk tolerance: Those who are more cautious are likely to be more susceptible to negative framing, whereas those who are more optimistic may respond better to positive framing.
• Preconceived notions: One’s preconceived notions about a given topic may make them more or less susceptible to its framing.
• Emotions: Both the emotions triggered by the message and the emotional state of the individual can play a role in how the consumer responds to framing.
• Belief systems: Whether the individual believes in the system the person is citing or not can make a big difference in whether a framed message works.
• Attentional resources: The amount of attention paid to the incoming information affects the processing of the message and the effectiveness of its framing.
• Issue involvement: The extent to which the issue is of personal importance will influence the persuasiveness of framing.
  

Strategies to Mitigate the Influence of Framing

Strategies to mitigate the influence of framing include educating yourself about how framing works (which you're doing right now—congrats!). You should also, according to Harper, “be aware of how information is presented and consider alternative perspectives. Asking yourself how the same information might be framed differently can help you see through the bias.”

You can also perform your own research on the legitimacy of the information being framed, says Guarino. Harper agrees, citing taking the time to think critically about information before making a decision as another way to reduce the power of framing.

Implications of Framing Psychology in Mental Health

The goal of framing is to influence perceptions and those who have trouble managing their cognitive biases, have more exposure to media outlets, or have mental health issues are more likely to have their mental health impacted by framing, according to Guarino. As a result, these individuals may be more likely to accept misleading information.

At the same time, framing can impact how people in the mental health care system perceive their challenges and treatment options, says Harper. Negative framing can contribute to feelings of hopelessness, whereas positive framing can encourage a sense of hope and motivation, which is crucial in therapy.

Wrapping Up

Framing as a psychological tactic is all around us. You might have even used it to present your own findings to your spouse, your children, your parents, your friends, or your colleagues. For example, you might have told your child that kids who ride the bus to school are twice as likely to make friends. While this is an innocuous enough example, those who are trying to manipulate your thinking in politics, advertising, or other realms need to be questioned.

Reading this article is a good start to understanding framing. You can also look out for this phenomenon in your daily life, be aware of how information is presented in different contexts, perform your own research, and think critically about how information is being framed. This can go a long way toward guarding against the framing effect in psychology.